CRITICAL THINKING – PORTFOLIO ASSESSMENT BRIEF

Part A: Proposition Report

Parents are the Most Important Social Influence on a Child’s Development

Introduction

Home is an institution where children spend the most of their time. This is an environment where they learn how to socialize with their peers. Additionally, the environment enables the children to achieve developmental milestones both physically and psychologically. During socialization with peers’ children experience heightened psychosocial stress that if not properly managed can lead to severe mental health problems in adolescence and adulthood (Fromme & Rivet 2012 p.28). If these challenges and stress are addressed in a preventative manner, children’s ability to perform in school, their interpersonal relationships with peers, parents and teachers, their sense of self-worth and self-efficacy improves tremendously.

The group is for this proposition that parents are the most important social influence on a child’s development. This position has been influenced by Tarter (2012 p.73) that counselling services offered by parents aims at increasing the coping ability of children, helping in rooting out their mental traumas, and establishing elaborate healthy relationships with family members, teachers and peers. Notably, parental roles help in the early detection and prevention of problems that may be detrimental to children and that may impair their social life. Additionally, creation of a more nurturing environment for children to become socially responsible citizens is founded in the home environment.

Literature Review

This section examines views from both scholars for and against the proposition that parents are the most important social influence on a child’s development.

A healthy parent-child relationship, where there is positive communication patterns and developmentally appropriate supervision and regulations, as well as anti-drug and alcohol dialogues, serves to combat risk factors and decrease substance abuse behaviors among children. Consequently, this healthy relationship serves a platform of bringing up well socialized children.

According to the Substance Abuse and the Mental Health Services report of 2013, an estimated 11.6% of children and adolescents in the United States between the ages of 12 and 17 years were using illicit drugs, and further 8.9% of this age group could be classified with a diagnosis of substance abuse or dependence (Comerci & Schwebel 2013 p.33). Parental guidance on substance use is a process that attempts to avert the onset of substance use or enhance limit of developing problems attributed to psychoactive substances. These efforts create awareness and friendly environment of bringing up children in healthy social environment.

On the other hand, the proposition that parents are the most important social influence on a child’s development has faced a lot of criticism. The proponents of this perspective argue that parents are not entitled to discussing some aspects with their children. For instance, the question is whether the state, school, or the family should teach sex education. These critiques believe that sex education should be handled by schools and the state but not parents. Their criticism is ingrained on the fact that parents lack the methodology of teaching their children this concept (Hamilton & Adlaf 2011 p.90). They further claim that some sex education at home breaks down the pre-existing perceptions of modesty.

Stunningly, many religious conservatives have different view on this proposition. They believe that teaching children about socialization on sexuality is a concept that should not be taught at all. Their views are based on the fact that the longer a child is kept unaware of the sexuality concept the less likely a child will become involved in sexual behaviour (Tarter 2012 p.53).

Stunningly, many religious conservatives have different view on this proposition. They believe that teaching children about socialization on sexuality is a concept that should not be taught at all. Their views are based on the fact that the longer a child is kept unaware of the sexuality concept the less likely a child will become involved in sexual behaviour (Tarter 2012 p.53).

Besides, it is also interesting to note that these critiques portend that children should be left to discover what they like by themselves through interaction. Providing varied experiences for children offers an opportunity for exploration, skills, and interest development. They further assert that children should be exposed to outdoor activities, drama, and architectural tours (Hamilton & Adlaf 2011 106). The more they get informed, the higher the ability to identify what they like, what is happening in the world, and what careers options they like through interaction.

Conclusion

This study concludes that parents have a critical role to play to enable children navigate through early stages of life. Parental guidance provides an integral support in enhancing personal, social, academic, and career needs of children. In addition, parents create a nurturing environment for children to become socially and psychologically adjusted in society through rooting out their mental traumas and establishing healthy relationships with family members, teachers, and peers. However, parents should allow children to socialize, explore, and choose what they like.

Part B: Symposium Report

Debate on Violence and Aggression in Digital Games

Introduction

Digital games are interactive games which are played using electronic devices such as computers, mobile phones and televisions. Additionally, these games can also be played using devices which are microchip controlled such as arcade machines. Both the public and scholars have engaged in a long standing debate on whether digital games have a causal or correlational link between digital games, violence and aggression in real-life. Based on this proposition, this report seeks to examine this debate and present alternative perspectives to support or refute this proposition. Further, this proposition report will give a critical analysis of the strength of the premises and arguments elucidated for and against this proposition. Presenting an elaborate conclusion regarding the proposition and linking the research findings to the proposition report constitutes the scope of this study.

Literature Review

In this section of literature review, past studies that give alternative perspectives supporting or refuting the proposition that violence and aggression have a causal or correlational link with digital games has been examined. Excessive exposure and playing of digital games can be harmful as this influences people to think and act aggressively. The tenets of this assertion are ingrained in the social learning theory brought forth by Albert Bandura in 1977. Bandura argues that children learn and imitate behaviors they observe through observational learning. His theory further elaborates that good or bad behaviors are learned through modelling, imitation and observation (Devik $ Alutu 2013 p.40).

The rate of young people engaging in criminal activities as has grown exponentially in the recent past. Anderson (2012 p.82) argues that there exist causal link between digital games, violence and aggression witnessed across the globe. Studies on the effects of digital games on child behavior began in 1920s. It has been found that there is a positive association between digital games exposure and juvenile delinquency. By 1990s, the rising rate of playing video game by young people was worrying. Games, for instance, The Double Dragon and Wolfenstein had shooting characters. Children learned shooting skills from these games through imitation and applied them in real life situations (Kronenberger 2010 p.55).

Anderson (2012) in their study explain that people who excessively play digital games have been reported to harbor deep rooted anxieties which they project to other people as was seen in the mass murder at the Columbine high school shooting in the year 1999. Investigations revealed that the perpetrators of the criminal act were frequent players of the digital games by the name Doom which was produced in 1993. Prof. Matt De Lisi, a sociologist, in his study on video game exposure and youth violence in Pennsylvania found out that each juvenile offender had committed an average of nine serious crimes that ranges from robbery, fighting or physically insulting other people. He concluded that exposure to digital games; violence and aggression have a strong positive correlation. As young people play and are more exposed to video games the more likely that they will engage in criminal activities. Studies have also revealed that young people with psychotic personalities are vulnerable to negative effects of video games exposure (Devik $ Alutu 2013 p.93).

On the other hand, other scholars argue that antisocial behaviors exhibited by people cannot be attributed to digital games exposure. Consequently, there is no causal or correlational link between digital games, violence and aggression in real-life. Fuller (2013 p.90) contends that violence and aggression existed even before anybody thought of inventing digital games. This perspective is firmly supported by Stuart & Norvig (2013 p.62) who elucidates that there a myriad of third variables that cause violence and aggression behaviours, for instance, poverty, gender, family social-economic status, family break-ups, depression, peer influence, and substance use. He further asserts that it cannot be conclusively argued that people who play digital games end up committing any crimes in society. He concludes that many young people play digital games for entertainment reasons.

Notably, a case before the US Supreme Court in 2011, Brown v. EMA, adds significant weight to the proponents refuting a causal or correlational link between digital games, violence and aggression in real-life. The Supreme Court ruled that that the evidence presented before it by the California state seeking to ban that selling of violent digital games to the young people was not sufficient (Fuller 2013 p.77). The court concluded its ruling that state of California did not present before it studies that link violent game playing and incidents of real-life violence and aggression.

Conclusion

During cross-examination of arguments brought forth for and against the proposition that a causal or correlational link exists between digital games, violence and aggression in real-life varied positions were taken by scholars. One group argued that there is a link while the other group of scholars refuted the claims. This study does provide definitive conclusion on the causal or correlational link between digital games, violence and aggression in real-life but recommends conducting a scientific study before assuming a position. This perspective is attributed to the fact that there a myriad of third variables that can be linked to violence and aggression.

Part C: Public Communication of Science Task

Bad Science Reporting

Introduction

The section examines how science is covered in the media and gives a perspective on how it should be covered. A critique of a story, New Critique Sees Flaws in Landmark Analysis of Psychology Studies, will be done. Additionally, the strengths and weaknesses of such the science reporting will also be analysed.

Landmark Flaws in the Analysis of Psychology Studies

Critique

Published in March, 2016, in Science the story casts doubts to the dozens of psychological statistical results (Carey 2016). The story portends that many psychology study results are flawed and consequently the many psychology studies are wrong. The report produced in 2015, Reproducibility Project, portends that the study results of many studies in psychology cannot be retested and the data was manipulated. In addition, the story asserts that close to 100% of the statistical methodology in a sample of one hundred psychology papers observed cannot be reproduced.

This story is among the many examples of bad science reporting. Dr. Wilson, a distinguished professor of psychology at the University of Virginia in the United States argues that the story got much press attention and people drew wrong conclusions from it. The professor elucidates that it is a mistake for the media to make generalisations from assertions that lack scientific backing. Nosek, who is a colleague of Dr. Wilson at the university, countered the story as being highly biased and further argued that the story was based on assumptions that selectively interpreted data and opposed to antagonistic perspectives.

Strengths

Bad science reporting can be viewed as a challenge to psychology scholars to be keen in data analysis and presentation of study results. Additionally, the bad science reporting is a platform of re-evaluation and a road map of producing better research results that are universally acceptable.

Weaknesses

Bad science reporting can glamorize the perception and cast doubts in the whole psychological studies. Consequently, psychological studies will be viewed as embracing wrong statistical methodologies, using manipulated data, and cannot be retested. This is fallacious and misleading.

Press Release

The article whose lead author is Benedict Carey, New Critique Sees Flaws in Landmark Analysis of Psychology Studies, published on March 3, 2016 in the Science Journal evoked varied reactions. The story argues that many psychology study results are flawed because many studies have employed wrong statistical methodologies and manipulated data. In addition, the article portends that many studies in psychology cannot be retested. This media publication is viewed as being biased and lacks evidence to support the assertions. Ingrained in this reason, journalists need a re-evaluation on how to report and portray scientific results.

Based on Dr. Wilson’s opinions there is need to improve transparency in media reporting. It is important for the media reporters to have sufficient information before publishing scientific findings and critiques. Based on the story, he continues to note that 31 authors of the original research study had not explicitly endorsed the retest design. One study done in Stanford and replicated in Amsterdam can have varied results due to cultural context. Consequently, there is need for the media to have a glimpse of critical concepts and avoid generalisations before publishing articles that may provide conflicting information to the public.In addition, studies may have variations. Retests may also fail by chance based on the variations such as design differences. Thus, it would be misleading to conclusively publish articles pointing flaws in psychological methodologies without taking into consideration such variations. Dr. Simohnson, a psychology researcher at the University of Pennsylvania, blogged about the dispute in the story and argued that the original work was found to be a glass 40% full while the critique argues that it could have been 100%.

In addition, studies may have variations. Retests may also fail by chance based on the variations such as design differences. Thus, it would be misleading to conclusively publish articles pointing flaws in psychological methodologies without taking into consideration such variations. Dr. Simohnson, a psychology researcher at the University of Pennsylvania, blogged about the dispute in the story and argued that the original work was found to be a glass 40% full while the critique argues that it could have been 100%.

According to the state of the art techniques that are designed to conduct evaluation of replications, 40% full, 30% empty, and the remaining 30% can either be full or empty but one cannot tell until more data is availed. If Dr. Simohnson’s assertion is something to go by, it is important for the article readers not to make conclusive perspectives until empirical retests have been done to proof.

Reference List

Anderson, K. 2012. Effects of Violent Video Games: A model in Aggressive Behavior. Physiological Arousal and Prosocial Behavior, 34(3), 353-356.

Carey, B. 2016. Landmark Flaws in the Analysis of Psychology Studies. [Online] Available at:http://www.nytimes.com/2016/03/04/science/psychology-replication-reproducibility-project.html[Accessed 12 July 2016].

Comerci, G. D., & Schwebel, R. 2013. Substance abuse. Journal on Adolescent Medicine, 40, 69-89.

Devik E. and Alutu G. 2013. Not so doomed: Computer game play and positive adolescent development Implications for Academic advising. Guidance and Counselling, 18(1), 149- 152.

Fromme, K. & Rivet, K. 2012. Outcome and risks-taking behaviors. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 22, 321–342.

Fromme, K. & Rivet, K. 2012. Outcome and risks-taking behaviors. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 22, 321–342. Hamilton, H. & Adlaf, E. 2011. Perceived health and maladjustment status in adolescence. Social Science & Medicine, 78, 523-538.

Hamilton, H. & Adlaf, E. 2011. Perceived health and maladjustment status in adolescence. Social Science & Medicine, 78, 523-538.

Kronenberger, T. 2010. Media Violence: Exposure and Executive Functioning in Aggressive and Control Adolescents. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 12(1), 725.

Stuart, N. & Norvig, K. 2013. Social learning theory: Transmission of aggression through the imitation of aggressive models. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 63(1), 575-582.

Tarter, R. E. 2012. The Etiology of adolescent drug abuse: A developmental perspective. The American Journal on Addictions, 11, 71–191.